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Architectural Design for Additive
Manufacturing Construction: Lesson
Learned from Design for Additive
Manufacturing
Vikrom Laovisutthichai 1✉
Email: Vikrom@connect.hku.hk
Weisheng Lu 1
Fan Xue 1
1 Department of Real Estate and Construction, The University of Hong
Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR

Abstract
Additive Manufacturing (AM) is widely studied in many fields, including
aeronautics, automotive, medicine, and construction. Some researchers expect
AM to benefit construction practice in terms of reducing waste, alleviating time
overrun, and breaking design limitations. With the high-level customizability of
AM construction, designers are less constrained, e.g., by design standardization,
in designing bio-inspired forms, natural curves, and uniqueness in construction
projects. Nevertheless, AM technology also faces challenges, such as high
printing cost, inability to print, and weak structure during a layer-by-layer
printing process. Design for Additive Manufacturing (DfAM) has, therefore, been
proposed for the construction industry. This paper revisits the lessons learned
from the problems and the DfAM solutions to real-life cases. First, due to AM’s
capability to construct without casting molds, self-support structure, e.g., plate
and shell structure, should be included in the designs. Secondly, according to
DfAM guidelines, a large amount of temporary support structure, overhang, thin
feature, and flat surface are among the major factors affecting the efficiency of
AM. In comparison, there are several architectural elements, such as long-span
structure, cantilever part, thin wall, and flat roof can be the barriers to AM in
construction. In order to promote the application of AM in construction and
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achieve higher efficiency, new DfAM guidelines for the construction sector are
demanded.
AQ1

Keywords
3D printing
Design for X
Design for additive manufacturing
Construction automation
Architectural design

1. Introduction
3D printing technology, also known as Additive Manufacturing (AM), has been
studied in a wide-range of industries, including manufacturing, medicine,
aeronautics, automotive, as well as construction. With its abilities to customize
individual requirements, reduce waste from the production process, and produce
eccentric forms, many industries see it as an opportunity to achieve a high level of
customer satisfaction with a reasonable budget [1, 2]. For instance, in the dental
industry, layered fabrication innovation has been introduced to produce dental
restoration and artificial organ [3]. The recent study also mentions that when this
fabrication method is fully developed, the second revolution of manufacturing will
occur [4].
The possibility and feasibility of AM in construction have also been analyzed by
researchers, as the industry currently experiences with several challenges, a
shortage of construction workers, labor costs, waste management and site safety
incidents [5, 6]. From the recent study, the benefits of adopting AM in construction
are a customization production, design flexibility, efficient material usage, raise
construction performance, shorten time, decreasing the number of labors, saving
financial cost, and reducing environmental impacts [7]. Several studies agree that
AM will enhance construction productivity, lift users’ satisfactory, and bring the
industry closer to a fully automated procedure in the future [5, 7, 8].
However, AM is not free from criticism. The implementation of the technology in
manufacturing also faces many issues, unsatisfactory productivity, unable to print,
high cost, and limited material alternatives [2, 9]. The application of AM in real-life
construction is also questioned by many researchers, due to the differences between
manufacturing and construction [5, 7, 8]. A plethora of research has proposed a new
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design approach, Design for Additive Manufacturing (DfAM), also known as
Design for Rapid Manufacturing, to solve manufacturing issues and increase the
productivity in AM construction [9, 10, 11, 12]. According to the previous real-life
case study, the application of DfAM in the design process for manufacturing can
prevent printing problems and boost its efficiency. Moreover, the guideline can be
advantageous for new users to avoid common mistake, and comprehend the
principle of AM [9, 13].
Therefore, a lesson learned from DfAM is currently demanded in order to support
the applications of the new manufacturing concept for the construction industry in
the future. The remainder of this paper consists of four sections. The following part
is to review AM and design criteria from DfAM concept. Architectural design
elements, which have possibilities to be advantages and barriers to AM
construction, are analyzed in the Sect. 3. In the final stage, a conclusion and
discussion are drawn.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Additive Manufacturing and 3D Printing
The definition of Additive Manufacturing (AM), provided by the American Society
for Testing and Materials (ASTM), is “a process of joining materials to make
objects from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer” [14]. 3D printing is an
automated process of making three-dimensional object under AM concept [15].
Unlike the former production concepts, subtractive or formative process, AM
produces the product by adding layer instead of removing some materials [16].
In general, the process of AM can be divided into four stages, which are digital
model creation, slicing, printing, and post-production [2]. (1) Digital model
creation: Starting from computer-aided design (CAD), designers use the modeling
software to generate 3D digital model. (2) Slicing: Since the manufacturing method
of AM is adding layer after layer, the 3D digital model will be sliced horizontally
before the printing stage, based on material’s properties and printer’s specifications.
(3) Printing: AM Machine prints 3D model directly from the digital file. From the
seamless production process, it can resolve some misunderstandings between
designers and manufacturers. (4) Post-production: This stage includes material
removal, smoothening, painting, polishing, consolidating with other parts, etc. The
AM process can be varied, owing to the alternatives of materials and designs [16,
17].
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The advantages of using AM in the manufacturing industry include, inter alia:
High customizability: A variety of designs can be produced by one machine, since
there are no requirements for changing casting mold, temporary supporting
structure, or equipment.
Simplified process: Unlike the former manufacturing process, design and
production must be done separately, the production of AM can be started
immediately.
Shorten time: Owing to the borderless between design and manufacturing stage,
prototype can be printed by designers and computer software. It makes learnings by
trial and error method, design-build-fail-redesign-rebuild, faster than before.
Cost-effectiveness: By the simplicity of the production process, the time, cost, and
quality are more predictable and manageable. Moreover, it does not have tools and
equipment costs.
Reduced waste generation: While subtractive manufacturing causes industrial
waste resulting from removing unwanted parts from a solid form, AM produces as
necessary by adding layer instead of cutting out.
Less manpower requirement: Due to the fully automated production, the process
needs fewer labors than conventional methods [2, 13, 18, 19].

2.2. Additive Manufacturing in the Construction Industry
As the construction industry face challenges, e.g., a high demand for construction
projects, escalating in costs, unsatisfactory performance, site incidents, manpower
shortage, decreasing productivity, and lack of creativity, AM has been introduced in
order to resolve issues and revitalize the industry [6]. However, there is a limited
number of AM in construction cases, and the research are still in the initial stage
[5].
Several research and cases have been done to study the possibility and feasibility of
AM in the industry. Nowadays, there are three well-known construction systems
based on AM concept, which are contour crafting, D-shape, and concrete printing.
All systems produce by adding layer-by-layer, while the differences among them
are machine specifications and materials. Researchers agree that with fully

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developed system, AM concept can be successful in construction, as a tool to make
unique and nonrepetitive products [19, 20].
One of the recent developments is created by WinSun, a Chinese company based in
Jiangsu province. They used AM technology to print building components for 5storey apartment block before assembling them on site. The building design mostly
consist of straight lines and box spaces. The company claimed that either traditional
architectural style or highly detailed 3D models can be built with their AM
technology. Moreover, it can be a solution for most of conventional construction
issues [1, 21].

2.3. Design for Additive Manufacturing (DfAM)
According to the study, it highlights that conventional design methods are not
appropriate for AM. During the design process, designers are required to shift their
methodology and decision making from traditional subtractive approaches. In order
to improve the AM performance, many ideas have been proposed, including Design
for Additive Manufacturing (DfAM) [22].
From the research on DfAM, the example of design criteria for AM production are
as follows. (1) Structural optimization: Since the cost of 3DP is variable
corresponds to the amount of material, the optimization of a structure without
changing the design is needed to reduce manufacturing cost and time. (2) Model
strength: Inability to print, deformation, and structure failure are three significant
problems, resulting from weak structural systems. Designers, therefore, should take
materials properties, machine specifications, and structural performance into
account. (3) Model stability: Products are affected by various forces during and
after production process. For risk prevention, users should verify that the model is
in the balance state. (4) Printing orientation: Many times, critical printing issues,
can be resolved without redesign by changing orientation. The techniques, e.g.,
model rotation, shifting, turning over, flipping, are used to avoid overhang, and
reduce temporary supporting structure in AM. (5) Temporary supports and
unsupported features: Temporary supports and unsupported features are crucial
factors affecting the manufacturing productivity. With a lot of temporary supports,
the model wastes more time and materials, while unsupported features can cause
structural failures in production stage. As a consequence, these should be carefully
considered in the design process [2, 17, 22].

3. Analysis
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3.1. The Application of Additive Manufacturing in Architectural
Design
Although AM provides opportunities to design unique products, it still experiences
with some challenges related to printability and cost efficiency [11]. In order to
support AM in the industry, an appropriate design is among the keys to success.
From the characteristics of AM, the method is printing layer by layer without
casting molds or temporary support structure. It is faster, safer, and less material
waste than other construction methods. Thus, building structure, requiring casting
molds and supports during the process, e.g., column-beam structure, should be
avoided. The design, which is appropriate to AM, should be self-supported (Table
1).
Table 1
Construction methods and opportunities in architectural design
Construction methods

Opportunities in architectural design

Conventional in-situ construction
(require molds and temporary
support)

Column-beam structure (require molds and
temporary support for casting concrete)

Precast construction (require
molds in manufacturing plant)

Load bearing wall structure with steel
reinforcement (require molds for casting concrete
in production line)

Additive manufacturing
construction (construction without
casting molds)

Self-supported structures, e.g., vault, plate, and
shell s(not require casting molds)

In architectural design, vault, plate, and shell are the examples of self-supported
structures, which can be applied for AM in construction. Sydney Opera House and
TWA terminal are two examples of shell structure buildings. To construct plate and
shell structures in a conventional construction, plenty of casting molds need to be
prepared in the pre-construction stage. It badly drops the construction efficiency;
hence, a limited number of plate and shell structures have been constructed in the
past. With its capability of producing self-supported structure without molds, AM is
likely to be a proper construction method for plate and shell structures (Figs. 1 and
2).
Fig. 1
Shell structure at Sydney opera house [23]

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Fig. 2
Shell structure at TWA terminal [24]

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AQ2

3.2. The Comparison of DfAM Design Checklist and
Architectural Elements
In order to make the AM design guidelines useful, Joran W. Booth has reviewed
and summarized into one worksheet for all users in 2015, especially for novice and
intermittent designers, to evaluate their designs by themselves before printing
layers [9]. It can be seen from the worksheet that model complexity is not the
difficulty of the printing process. On the other hand, several conditions affecting
the risk of printing failures are designs with a large amount of supporting structure,
overhang, thin features, corner without support, and huge flat area [9, 23, 24].
Comparing to an architectural design, some commonly used elements are likely to
be like these conditions. They have the potential to be a barrier to AM construction,
as seen in Table 2.
Table 2
The comparison between manufacturing and architectural design elements
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Designs should be avoided
for additive manufacturing

Problems can be found in
additive manufacturing

Architectural elements
likely to be barriers

Temporary supporting
structure

Need the removal process
after production

Long-span structure,
cantilever structure, and
openings

Overhang and unsupported
feature

Inability to print, structural
failure, or product defect

Long-span structure,
cantilever structure, and
openings

Thin features

Easily breaking during and
after manufacturing

Thin wall and canopy

Corners without chamfers,
or fillets

Need more process and
longer manufacturing time

Sharp edges and corners

Functionality

Product unable to handle
heavy duty works

Door hinge, knob, handle,
etc.

Large flat area

Inability to print, structural
failure, and product defect

Huge flat roof, and floor

Temporary supporting structure: The design with temporary supporting structure
in AM requires post-production process to remove manually, as shown in Fig. 3. It
wastes material, prolongs manufacturing time, and increases the number of labors.
Moreover, to remove temporary support, the surface could be destroyed. Column
and beam structure, commonly used in the architectural field, also needs formwork
frames to support and shape wet-concrete until it is self-supporting, as shown in
Fig. 4. Some openings shapes also require lintel to bridge the gap before adding
layer above. This causes an interruption during printing process. To enhance 3DP
construction, the architectural elements, required temporary support structure
during construction, needs to be reconsidered.
Fig. 3
D printing product with temporary supporting structure [25]

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Fig. 4
Formwork frame for concrete casting in construction [26]

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Overhang and unsupported feature: A large amount of overhang or bridge
without supporting structure cause severe problems in production, including the
inability to print, production defect, and structure failures, as shown in Fig. 5.
Comparing to architectural elements, cantilever or wide-span structure without
bracing or drop panel should also be avoided. For layer by layer printing
construction, the lower layer should be able to instantly support loads from the
upper layer. By applying this method, the project can reduce temporary support
structure or casting mold, and save a great amount of time, cost, and labor (Fig. 6).
Fig. 5
A defect from 3D printing production without temporary supporting structure [27]

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Fig. 6
Wide-span structure in architectural design [28]

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Thin features: Due to the limitation of printing process and material specifications,
thin features in AM are easily broken during and after production phase. In
architectural design, thin wall and canopy design should be considered using other
construction methods instead.
Corners without chamfers, or fillets: Because of the machine specifications,
sharp corner need longer manufacturing time, otherwise the surface will be rough,
as shown in Fig. 7. While in conventional construction, corner bead has been used
to make wall corners sharp. By this step, more production time and materials are
required (Fig. 8).
Fig. 7
A rough corner [29]

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Fig. 8
Corner bead in construction [30]

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Functionality: Products from AM manufacturing are capable of serving light and
medium duty. In order to handle heavy duty in architecture, e.g., doors’ hinge,
knob, and handle, using conventional methods can make products more durable.
Large flat area: By adding line-by-line and layer-by-layer, large flat area can be
constructed by printer; nevertheless, it wastes a lot of time for production. For a
huge flat roof construction, it would better to consider using other technologies.
It is apparent that the capable of AM gives freedom to design a complex form and
irregular shape; nonetheless, it still has its own constraints resulting from the
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specifications of printer and material. To achieve better efficiency, several ideas,
e.g., self-supported structure, should be included into the design, while some
common design elements should be avoided.

4. Conclusion and Discussion
4.1. Conclusion
With its advantages including customization, working simplification, shortening
production time, and eccentric form production, Additive Manufacturing (AM) is
predicted by the construction industry to be the new revolution of a production
process in the future. For designers, the application of AM makes bio-inspired
form, eccentric shape, and curvy line buildability for the first time. It breaks the
former design constraints, box spaces and straight lines.
One of the most prominent abilities of AM is product manufacturability without
casting molds. A large amount of cost, labors, and time could be saved. To advance
the efficiency of AM, self-supported structure should be included in the designs. In
comparison to architectural elements, there are several frequently-used selfsupported structures, e.g., plate and shell structure of Sydney Opera House and
TWA Terminal. Despite difficulties from casting molds preparation in conventional
construction, shell structure is possible to be built efficiently in AM construction.
On the other hand, according to design for additive manufacturing (DfAM)
guidelines, there are several concerns that designers should take into accounts, e.g.,
designs with a large amount of temporary supporting structures, overhangs, thin
features, corners without support, and huge flat areas. From a comparative study,
there are some architectural elements, which appear to be barriers in AM
construction, such as long-span structure, cantilever part, thin wall, and flat roof.
Unlike traditional design approach, the design process for AM needs to be
reconsidered in order to lift its efficiency. Especially for the construction industry,
the AM buildability should be a key to concern for designers.

4.2. Discussion
This paper has preliminarily reviewed some DfAM guidelines and proposed the
opportunities and barriers in architectural design for AM construction. Since the
research on the application of AM construction and DfAM is currently in the infant
stage, reviewing and analyzing DfAM will be useful for construction sector.

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Moreover, to advance the study, a number of real-life cases and empirical studies
still need to be researched.
The arrival of AM technology will be beneficial for every industry to achieve
higher productivity, better customers’ satisfactory, safer working environment, and
lower material waste. Nevertheless, this method is not the absolute solution to solve
every issue. Since AM is not appropriate for every design, it is essential for
stakeholders to realize the principle of each construction method and select the
most appropriate solution. In order to make AM successful in the construction
industry and promote understanding among users, new guidelines for AM in
construction is highly demanded.

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